Introduction

The riveting narratives within the book of Judges are some of the most well-known and beloved stories in all of Scripture. From the fascinating account of Gideon’s fleece to the intrigue of Samson’s escapades, the adventures in the book of Judges have mesmerized both children and adults alike. The question is what contextual, archaeological, and literary evidence exists to support an understanding of the meaning and historical realities of the texts. By ignoring the biblical and extra-biblical clues, the interpreter risks not only misinterpreting the content, but also ignoring the historical veracity of the texts. The historical and canonical context, relevant archaeological data, and ancient literary parallels enhance understanding of the text and support the historicity of the book of Judges within a framework of the ancient Near East. The following brief analysis first provides an overview of the book’s background along with an analysis of its historical and canonical context. Next, a survey of the major relevant archaeological material commences with an emphasis on the excavations at Tel Miqne, Tel Balata, and Tel Qasile. Finally, a survey of relevant ancient Near Eastern literary parallels completes the analysis, which focuses specifically upon the Merneptah Stela, the Amarna Letters, the Ugaritic collections, and the Great Karnak Inscription of Merneptah.

Historical and Canonical Introduction

At the end of the book of Joshua, the Israelites had not conquered all of the land allocated to them by Yahweh. The book of Judges continues the story of the Israelites now residing in Canaan, a small strip of land west of the Mediterranean Sea and east of Mesopotamia. Unfortunately, the Canaanite influence upon Israel resulted in a downward spiral of apostasy. Although Yahweh chooses various judges or rulers to lead His people, the Israelites continue a circular pattern of apostasy, oppression, repentance, deliverance, and a generation of peace. At the conclusion of the book of Judges, the corruption of the people of Israel seems almost hopeless.

Appropriately assessing the historical context of the book of Judges requires an investigation of both the compositional and referential historical context. First, regarding the compositional historical context, Mark Boda provides three developments: early critical scholarship, later critical scholarship, and modern literary unity.[1] Early critical scholarship leaned on the work of Julius Wellhausen’s documentary hypothesis, which suggests the original form of Judges arose from both the Jahwist (J) and Elohist (E) sources with redactions occurring by later editors.[2] In a study from 1943, Martin Noth represents later critical scholarship by espousing a Deuteronomistic History (DtrH), which, Steven McKenzie explains, assumes that the books of Deuteronomy through 2 Kings were a single unified story written by an author around 562 BC through a process of compilation, editorialization, and composition.[3] More recently, Barry Webb represents a form of modern literary unity by utilizing a synchronic approach that focuses on the final form of the text.[4] In other words, Webb makes a case for a coherent unity of the entire book of Judges.

Regarding referential historical context, the debate regarding alternative views of the historicity of Judges is beyond the scope of a background introduction. However, according to Boda, a general consensus does exist among scholars regarding the rise of the Israelite monarchy around 1000 BC; thus the dating of the book of Judges must precede the time of David.[5]

Judges, Ruth_ An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture (Volume 6)

Accordingly, the likely timeframe of the events in the book of Judges occurred around the Early Iron Age. However, at this point, attempting to establish the details of the chronology within the book of Judges becomes quite difficult. Although many of the place names in the book of Judges align with the geography of the ancient Near East, according to Daniel Block, not a single character within the narrative of Judges exists within the extra-biblical sources of the ancient Near East.[6] Thus, reliance upon internal evidence from the biblical account is necessary, which presents a significant challenge.

By working through the narratives, the total number of years from the Exodus to the time Solomon began building the temple is approximately 590 years, but 1 Kings 6:1 states the timeframe is 480 years.[7] Boda’s explanation is that the book of Judges may not follow a strict chronology and that overlapping timeframes have occurred in the narrative.[8] In addition to the general dating and specific chronology of referential history, various possibilities exist regarding the nature of Israel’s conquest of the land, specifically due to lack of structure within a loose tribal confederacy. McKenzie asserts that since no archaeological evidence exists supporting an Israelite conquest, alternative methods of settlement including infiltration and peasant revolt models have been espoused.[9] Further, Boda acknowledges that some scholars avoid the subject altogether and consider the book of Judges a myth.[10] However, alongside Boda, this research assumes the biblical account reconstructs Israel’s historical past.

The book of Judges places itself within the canon of both the Jewish Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible directly after the book of Joshua. However, the Hebrew Bible assigns Judges to the Former Prophets alongside Joshua, Samuel, and Kings, while the Christian Bible assigns Judges to the Historical Books that include Ruth, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. In one sense, Judges is prophetic with regards to the warnings presented and, in another sense, the book of Judges is historical with regards to presenting the ongoing story of Israel. Judges also finds its place within the canon intertextually. According to Block, the reference to Sisera, the Philistines, and the king of Moab in 1 Samuel 12:9-11 clearly shows that the author was aware of the book of Judges.[11] Furthermore, the prophets Isaiah and Hosea both allude to the time frame of the Judges. Isaiah appears to reflect on Gideon by referring to the days of Midian (Isa 9:4), and Hosea refers to the corruption during the days of Gibeah (Hos 9:9, 10:9) as well as the evildoers of Gilead (Hos 6:8). Finally, Block also notes the potential allusions to the Song of Deborah in Psalm 68:7-14 and the list of Israelite oppressors in Psalm 83.[12] Without question, the book of Judges appropriately resides within the biblical canon. The compositional and referential historical and canonical context of the book of Judges not only enhances an understanding of the book of Judges but also supports the historicity of its events.

Archaeological Survey

Israel entered the land as a people group in covenant with Yahweh commissioned to drive out the Canaanites. However, many nations were left in the land during the time of the Judges “to test Israel” (Judg 3:1).[13] Judges 3:3 lists the remaining nations and specifically refers to the five cities of the Philistines. Block explains that the Philistines were one of the groups of Sea Peoples who migrated into Canaan around 1200 BC and formed the Philistine Pentapolis of city-states, which included Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza.[14] All five sites have been excavated. One prominent site is Tel Miqne, which, according to Trude Dothan and Seymour Gitin, is associated with the city of Ekron.[15] The Iron Age architecture confirmed the location of a major city during the time period of the events of Judges.[16] The excavations, according to Dothan, suggest a large urban district associated with the Sea Peoples based on the evidence from pottery and cultic installations.[17]

In Judges 9, the notables from the Canaanite city of Shechem contributed 70 shekels to Abimelech, Gideon’s son, which he used to murder 70 of his half-brothers (Judg 9:1-21). Ultimately, the people of Shechem began to worry about their involvement, and a clan revolted, which led to Abimelech setting fire to the Shechem Temple killing about one thousand (Judg 9:22-49). According to Lawrence Stager, Tell Balata began excavation in 1913, and the Temple at Shechem was discovered in 1926.[18] Excavation resumed between 1956 and 1973 by American excavators who dated the construction of the temple before the events of Gideon between 1650 and 1550 BC.[19] In contrast, Stager asserts that the temple adorned with an altar and pillars was not destroyed until around 1100 BC due to its nature and size, and thus was the temple referred to in Judges 9:46.[20]

Another famous temple in the book of Judges is seen in the story of Samson. After Delilah cuts Samson’s hair, the Philistines capture him, gouge out his eyes, and put him to work (Judg 16:1-22). The Philistine noblemen brought Samson to the temple in Gaza where they had planned a sacrifice to their god, Dagon (Judg 16:23-27). Samson locates the two pillars of the temple and pushes them over killing the Philistines (Judg 16:28-31). According to Block, a Philistine temple to Dagon has not yet been located in the city of Gaza.[21] However, a Philistine temple has been excavated at a site called Tell Qasile originally settled by the Philistines around 1100 BC.[22] The main room of the temple measured approximately eighteen feet by twenty-four feet, and several bones were found at the site suggesting sacrificial offerings.[23] Importantly, the archaeological evidence reveals two support columns made of wood, which were set on stone footings to support the structure of the building providing evidence that Philistine temples such as the one toppled by Samson existed during the time of Judges.[24]

Many additional excavations that potentially reflect sites referred to in Judges also exist. For example, the town of Laish (cf. Judg 18:7) is located at Tell Dan and demonstrates the presence of Aegeans, the town of Bethel (cf. Judg 4:5) is located at Tell Beitin, the town of Succoth (cf. Judg 8:5) is identified with Tell Deir Alla, and the town of Timnah (cf. Judg 14:1) is located at Tell Batash where evidence shows a transfer of power from Canaanites to the Philistines and then to the Israelites.[25] Furthermore, a treasure trove of archaeological artifacts have been uncovered that relate to the timeframe of Judges. For example, food-processing implements such as millstones (cf. Judg 9:53) were ubiquitous, looms have been found in domestic settings (cf. Judg 16:13-14), archaeology has uncovered an abundance of images of deities (cf. Judg 17:3-4), and slinging stones were also common in the archaeological finds (cf. Judg 20:16).[26] The relevant archaeological data enhances understanding and supports the historicity of the book of Judges within a framework of the ancient Near East. 

Ancient Near Eastern Literature

A survey of the relevant ancient Near Eastern literature to the book of Judges must commence with the Merneptah Stela, the Amarna letters, the Ugaritic collections, the Merneptah relief at Karnak, and a brief reference to Hittite literature. First, it is impossible to ignore the importance of the Merneptah Stela. The Egyptian Pharaoh, Merneptah, began his reign in 1213 BC and, according to Block, the Merneptah Stela was erected in approximately 1208 BC to commemorate the king’s victories in Canaan.[27] Importantly, the stela is the earliest attestation of Israel in extra-biblical literature.[28] James Hoffmeier notes that many scholars observe a parallelism in the inscription between Hurru and Israel suggesting a significant presence of Israelites in the region.[29] Furthermore, Hoffmeier continues, the writing of Israel on the stela appears to indicate an ethnic group rather than a region or city, which aligns with the image of Israel represented in the book of Judges.[30]

The Amarna letters are a collection of literary finds that may parallel the importance of the Merneptah Stela. Victor Matthews and Don Benjamin explain that in 1887 a woman found the collection of 382 tablets in Egypt that documented various diplomatic exchanges between rulers and vassal kingdoms in Canaan.[31] The significance of the Amarna letters resides not in the identification of Israelites, but instead, in highlighting the social unrest during the fourteenth century BC that parallels a similar political landscape of the time of Judges.[32] Many references to place names, individuals, and topics within the Amarna letters also occur in the book of Judges. For example, Block explains that the letters refer to the city of Jerusalem (cf. Judg 1:7) as a vassal of the Pharaoh at the time, the city of Ashkelon (cf. Judg 1:18) as a Canaanite city conquered by Merneptah, the city of Gezer (cf. Judg 1:29) as a flourishing economic and political center, and the Sidonians (cf. Judg 3:3) as a leading member of the anti-Egyptian coalition.[33] Other important parallels reference tribal confederations. Harry Hoffner notes that a Hittite text called “The Deeds of Šuppiluliuma” found within the Amarna letters identifies a number of tribes or tribal groups, which parallel the tribal confederacy involved in the conflicts recorded in the book of Judges.[34]

The discovery of a collection of Ugaritic texts from approximately the twelfth century provides another rich source of relevant ancient Near Eastern literature. According to Block, the Ugaritic collection, especially the poetry, has provided significant ritual and mythological texts referring to the Canaanite deities referenced in the book of Judges.[35] For example, in the Ugaritic mythological literature, Block explains Astarte (Ashtaroth) is the spouse of Baal and the reference to Baals (cf. Judg 2:13) refer to local manifestations of the deity.[36] The goddess named Asherah is associated with Baal in the book of Judges and is also referred to in Ugaritic poetry (cf. Judg 3:7). Nick Wyatt explains that in the Baal cycle, Asherah is the wife of the god El and the mother of seventy gods who intercedes for Baal.[37] Although a comprehensive analysis of the parallels between Ugaritic literature and the book of Judges is beyond the scope of the analysis, one more example assists. The importance of a son as documented in Judges 13 also has parallels in Ugaritic poetic literature. In the story of Aqhat, a son not only was important for the wellbeing of the parent but had important implications for the afterlife.[38]

A major parallel comes from the Great Karnak Inscription of Merneptah. First, the inscription dated to the thirteenth century is the only extra-biblical reference to the Sea Peoples and states that the Egyptian forces defeated “the foreign countries [or ‘peoples’] of the sea.”[39] Furthermore, the victory hymn of Tuthmosis III was also found in a temple at Karnak, which parallels Deborah’s victory hymn in Judges 5.[40] Finally, although Hittite references are less prominent, a Hittite incarnation does reference both the country of Sidon and the country of Tyre when listing geographical names (cf. Judg 3:3).[41] The ancient literary parallels enhance understanding of the text and support the historicity of the book of Judges within a framework of the ancient Near East. 

Conclusion

Although reading the biblical stories in the book of Judges provides entertainment akin to the action and drama of modern motion pictures, by placing the book of Judges and its captivating stories within its historical and canonical context, the interpreter can move beyond entertainment into illuminating understanding. Furthermore, by identifying relevant archaeological data, not only does the motion picture come alive, but its historicity also solidifies. Finally, the ancient Near Eastern literary parallels support the book’s historicity and also deeply immerses the reader into the cultural milieu of the ancient Israelites. Without question, the historical and canonical context, relevant archaeological data, and ancient literary parallels enhance understanding of the text and support the historicity of the book of Judges within a framework of the ancient Near East. From a personal perspective, by engaging the contextual, archaeological, and literary factors related to the book of Judges, not only does the content provide a deeper understanding of the text and a strong apologetic for historical veracity, but also, it provides a foundation for the enhancement of biblical exposition.

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[1] Mark J. Boda, Numbers-Ruth, ed. Tremper Longman and David E. Garland, vol. 2, The Expositor’s Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 1048–1049.

[2] Ibid., 2:1049.

[3] Steven L. McKenzie, Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2010), 14.

[4] Barry G. Webb, The Book of the Judges: An Integrated Reading (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2008), 36–40.

[5] Boda, Numbers-Ruth, 2:1050.

[6] Daniel I. Block, Judges, ed. John H. Walton, vol. 2, Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary (Zondervan, 2009), 97.

[7] Ibid., 2:99–100.

[8] Boda, Numbers-Ruth, 2:1051.

[9] McKenzie, Introduction to the Historical Books, 51.

[10] Boda, Numbers-Ruth, 2:1050.

[11] Daniel I. Block, Judges, Ruth: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture, ed. Kenneth A. Mathews and David S. Dockery, vol. 6, New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999), 26–27.

[12] Ibid., 6:26.

[13] Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the English Standard Version (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008).

[14] Block, Judges, Ruth, 6:137–138.

[15] Trude Dothan and Seymour Gitin, “Ekron of the Philistines: How They Lived, Worked and Worshiped for Five Hundred Years,” Biblical Archaeology Review 16, no. 1 (January 1990): 20-25.

[16] Ibid., 20-25.

[17] Trude Dothan, “Ekron of the Philistines, Part 1: Where They Came From, How They Settled Down and the Place They Worshiped In,” Biblical Archaeology Review 16, no. 1 (January 1990): 35-36.

[18] Lawrence E Stager, “The Shechem Temple: Where Abimelech Massacred a Thousand,” Biblical Archaeology Review 29, no. 4 (July 2003): 26–29.

[19] Ibid.

[20] Ibid., 26–35.

[21] Block, Judges, 2:203.

[22] “Philistine Temple Discovered Within Tel Aviv City Limits,” Biblical Archaeology Review 1, no. 2 (n.d.): 1, 6-9. See also Amihay Mazar, “Philistine Temple at Tell Qasile,” The Biblical Archaeologist 36, no. 2 (May 1973) and “Additional Philistine Temples at Tell Qasile,” The Biblical Archaeologist 40, no. 2 (May 1977).

[23] “Philistine Temple Discovered Within Tel Aviv City Limits,” 1, 6–9.

[24] “Philistines Temple Discovered,” 6-9.

[25] Steven M. Ortiz, “Judges” in ESV Archaeology Study Bible, ed. John D. Currid (Wheaton: Crossway, 2018), 337, 346, 355.

[26] Ibid., 350. 358. 359. 364.

[27] Block, Judges, 2:101.

[28] Ibid.

[29] James K. Hoffmeier, Context of Scripture: Monumental Inscriptions from the Biblical World, ed. William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger, vol. 2 (Boston: Brill, 2003), 41.

[30] Ibid.

[31] Victor H. Matthews and Don C. Benjamin, Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East (New York: Paulist Press, 2016), 155.

[32] Ibid., 156.

[33] Block, Judges, 2:107. 111, 114, 122.

[34] Harry A. Hoffner, Context of Scripture: Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World, ed. William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger, vol. 1 (Boston: Brill, 2003), 185.

[35] Block, Judges, 2:102.

[36] Ibid., 2:119.

[37] Nick Wyatt, Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, ed. Karel van der Toorn, Pieter W. van der Horst, and Bob Becking, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 99–100.

[38] Simon B. Parker, Ugaritic Narrative Poetry, vol. 9, Writings from the Ancient World (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), 52–53.

[39] Block, Judges, 2:103.

[40] Ibid., 2:143.

[41] James Bennett Pritchard, The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3rd ed. with Supplement. (Princeton: Princeton University, 1969), 351–352.

Bibliography

• Block, Daniel I. Judges. Edited by John H. Walton. Vol. 2. Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Zondervan, 2009.
• ———. Judges, Ruth: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture. Edited by Kenneth A. Mathews and David S. Dockery. Vol. 6. New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999.
• Boda, Mark J. Numbers-Ruth. Edited by Tremper Longman and David E. Garland. Vol. 2. The Expositor’s Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012.
• Dothan, Trude. “Ekron of the Philistines, Part 1: Where They Came From, How They Settled Down and the Place They Worshiped In.” Biblical Archaeology Review 16, no. 1 (January 1990): 26–36.
• Dothan, Trude, and Seymour Gitin. “Ekron of the Philistines: How They Lived, Worked and Worshiped for Five Hundred Years.” Biblical Archaeology Review 16, no. 1 (January 1990): 20–25.
• Hoffmeier, James K. Context of Scripture: Monumental Inscriptions from the Biblical World. Edited by William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger. Vol. 2. Boston: Brill, 2003.
• Hoffner, Harry A. Context of Scripture: Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World. Edited by William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger. Vol. 1. Boston: Brill, 2003.
• Matthews, Victor H., and Don C. Benjamin. Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East. New York: Paulist Press, 2016.
• Mazar, Amihay. “Additional Philistine Temples at Tell Qasile.” The Biblical Archaeologist 40, no. 2 (May 1977): 82–87.
• ———. “Philistine Temple at Tell Qasile.” The Biblical Archaeologist 36, no. 2 (May 1973): 42–48.
• McKenzie, Steven L. Introduction to the Historical Books: Strategies for Reading. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2010.
• Ortiz, Steven M. “Judges.” In ESV Archaeology Study Bible, edited by John D. Currid, 325-370. Wheaton: Crossway, 2018.
• Parker, Simon B. Ugaritic Narrative Poetry. Vol. 9. Writings from the Ancient World. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997.
• “Philistine Temple Discovered Within Tel Aviv City Limits.” Biblical Archaeology Review 1, no. 2 (n.d.): 1, 6–9.
• Pritchard, James Bennett. The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 3rd ed. with Supplement. Princeton: Princeton University, 1969.
• Stager, Lawrence E. “The Shechem Temple: Where Abimelech Massacred a Thousand.” Biblical Archaeology Review 29, no. 4 (July 2003): 26–35, 66–69.
• Webb, Barry G. The Book of the Judges: An Integrated Reading. Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2008.
• Wyatt, Nick. Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Edited by Karel van der Toorn, Pieter W. van der Horst, and Bob Becking. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999.