Introduction

The number of literary parallels between the ancient Near Eastern literature and the book of Exodus likely eclipses the parallels within many of the other Old Testament books combined. The comparative literature that encompasses the book of Exodus features some of the most celebrated stories and events in the Old Testament including the tale of baby Moses, the account of Moses’s exile, the famous parting of the sea, and the giving of the law. The question is what specific literature in the ancient Near East parallels these important events. Without identifying the pertinent literature, the interpreter risks missing culturally relevant contextual clues that could illuminate the meaning of Scripture. A brief comparative literary analysis of the book of Exodus reveals that many of the dominant stories and themes are reflected within the ancient Near Eastern literary environment. Importantly, the purpose of this overview is not to provide analysis of the similarities and differences or to opine upon how the Israelites engaged the content but rather to identify comparative literature. First, a brief overview of the methodology and scope used to select the comparative literature occurs, which explains how the parallels were chosen. Next, a comparative analysis ensues juxtaposing some of the most prominent stories and events in the book of Exodus with the germane ancient Near Eastern literature.

Methodology and Scope

Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Supplement

In order to provide a brief comparative literary analysis between the book of Exodus and the ancient Near Eastern literature, a proper selection methodology is required due to the extensive nature of the parallels. The methodology used aggregated the potential parallels from all assigned textbooks and two other important sources that specifically provided a broad framework of relevant ancient Near Eastern content. The first source was James Pritchard’s The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, which includes potential parallels from all the surrounding nations of the ancient Near East.[1] The second source was a more recent article entitled “Egyptian Texts relating to the Exodus: Discussion of Exodus Parallels in Egyptology Literature” by Brad Sparks.[2] Sparks identifies thirty parallels from fifty-six scholars from 1844 to the twenty-first century in the professional literature.[3] Texts from all the sources were recorded in a spreadsheet with the applicable nation, biblical verses, sources, and motifs when available. The scope has two parameters. First, to limit the scope and avoid parallelomania, the literary overview extends preference to parallels that were included in multiple sources and focus on the dominant topics and events of the book of Exodus. Second, the scope excludes parallels documented in the research provided in the paper “Historical Geography and Archaeology: Exodus” that integrates shorter textual references. Instead, the research focuses on more comprehensive literary pieces. Accordingly, the comparative literary analysis explores eight literary parallels between the book of Exodus and the ancient Near Eastern literature.

Comparative Literary Overview

One of the most popular and memorable parallels to the book of Exodus is The Legend of Sargon. The story tells of the birth and rise to power of the founder of the Akkadian Empire and early ruler in Mesopotamia around 2300 BC who successfully ruled for more than fifty years.[4] According to the legend, Sargon, who became a mighty king, was born in secret and then set in a basket of rushes and sealed with bitumen before being placed into the river by his mother.[5] A man named Akki finds Sargon, draws him from the river, and rears the boy into manhood at which time it is told that the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar loved Sargon, and he became a successful ruler.[6] The parallels to the story of Moses are unmistakable. The birth story of Moses tells of a woman who hid her son in secret and eventually placed him in a basket made with bulrushes and bitumen and placed him in a river (Exod 2:2-3). Instead of being rescued by a man, the baby Moses is rescued by the daughter of the Pharaoh, and Moses eventually becomes the leader of the Israelites (Exod 2:5-10). The most obvious parallels include the secrecy of the birth, the abandonment of the baby, the basket and river, the rescue, the favor of individuals of eminence, and the ultimate position of leadership by the baby.

The abandoned child motif also exists within other ancient Near Eastern kingdoms. Donald Redford identifies thirty-two different ancient Near Eastern references to the literary motif of the exposed child.[7] Specifically, the relevance of the Myth of Horus is that it, according to John Currid, has been in the Egyptian literature for a significant period of time, and although the most extensive recording of the story is during the first century AD, the primary elements of the story appear as early as the Egyptian Pyramid Texts.[8] Redford summarizes the story as follows: The goddess Isis births a son named Horus who is hidden in a “nest” among the papyrus to protect the boy from the evil god, Seth. Ultimately, Horus grows up a hero and drives the god Seth out of Egypt.[9] Although the parallels are not as obvious within the story of the gods as in The Legend of Sargon, the basic elements still exist. Like Moses, Horus is in danger, hidden in papyrus, and grows to become an important leader. An additional parallel not mentioned in The Legend of Sargon is that a villain pursued the child and attempted to murder him like the Pharaoh’s commands in Exodus 1:15-22.

A literary work from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom called the Stories of Sinuhe is considered a piece of classic literature. The parallels between Sinuhe and the Old Testament extend beyond the book of Exodus. However, the connection to Exodus pertains to Moses’s early adulthood. Victor Matthew and Don Benjamin retell the story: Sinuhe was a man working as an official for Pharaoh Amenemhet I (1991-1962 BC) and took care of his daughter, Neferu. The Pharaoh dies and Sinuhe feels that his life is in danger, so he flees Egypt and moves to Syria-Palestine. Ultimately, Senwosret, the newly appointed pharaoh, emerges and invites Sinuhe back to his homeland.[10] Consensus does not exist regarding the connection. However, Sparks notes that some believe that Sinuhe foreshadows the story of Moses’s exile, some believe that Sinuhe was a recurring theme within the ancient Near east, and others believe the resemblances are coincidental.[11] However, Currid provides several clear parallels between the stories to support a definite connection, which include both Sinuhe and Moses initially living in a royal court, then facing a threat that prompts both to flee, followed by victory in exile before experiencing a successful return.[12]

The “Destruction of Mankind” (Destruction), the story of humanity plotting against the sun god Ra who then reacts to deliver divine punishment to mankind, is a portion of a larger work called The Book of the Heavenly Cow. Several striking parallels exist between Destruction and the book of Exodus. First, Currid observes that Ra comes to terms with mankind’s potential rebellion by stating, “I am that I am, I will not let them take action.”[13] Similarly, Exodus 3:14 states, “God said to Moses, ‘I am who I am.’ And he said, ‘Say this to the people of Israel: ‘I am has sent me to you.’”[14] Not only is there a sovereign connotation to both references, but according to Currid, a morphological and phonetic parallel also exists.[15] Moreover, Sparks explains that many Egyptologists identify the theme of Destruction as a “primeval revolt” or “rebellion of mankind” that is prevalent in more than a dozen Egyptian texts and resembles an Exodus-like motif.[16] Specifically, the challenge against Ra as represented by the Pharaoh of Egypt is launched by the Hebrews in the northern part of Egypt via “their escape and ensuing armed pursuit.”[17] The divine name revelation and the primeval rebellion motif both provide opportunities for an enhanced understanding of the Exodus.

Another striking parallel comes from the “Poems about Baal and Anath” from Ugaritic literature. In the golden calf episode, Moses is angry and breaks the tablets just before he took the calf and “burned it with fire and ground it to powder and scattered it on the water and made the people of Israel drink it” (Exod 32:19-20). The relevant Ugaritic poem tells of the goddess Anath annihilating the god Mot:

With a fire she burns him,

With millstones she grinds him,

In a field she sows him.[18]

The parallels between the destruction of the golden calf by Moses and the destruction of Mot by Anath include burning, grinding, and scattering. Thomas Dozeman explains that the parallels move beyond verbal repetition and into the realm of life and death. Specifically, Mot is the god of death in Ugaritic literature, and thus when the goddess Anath destroys Mot by burning, grinding, and scattering, she is annihilating death.[19] Similarly, Dozeman continues, the golden calf represented the reign of death over life; thus, when Moses destroys the golden calf, he is annihilating a representation of death and preparing the way for the new covenant.[20]

It would likely be a crime to omit from a comparative literary analysis of the book of Exodus the parallels between the Hittite suzerain-vassal treaties and the content and format of the biblical covenants. Although the ancient Near Eastern accounts do not completely mirror the biblical accounts, Roy Gane provides a summary of the common components of the treaty form: (1) prologue, (2) past relationship, (3) stipulations, (4) the witnesses, (5) the blessings and curses, and (6) the recording provisions.[21] Furthermore, William Barrick succinctly highlights the parallels between the  Mosaic covenant and the ancient Near Eastern treaty form as follows: (1) history (Exod 19:1-4), (2) preamble (Exod 19:5-6), (3) terms (Exod 20:3-23:19), (4) blessings and curses (Exod 23:20-23), and (5) recording provisions (Exod 24:4-7).[22] More specifically, the treaty between Hattusilis and Ramses II parallels Exodus 19 and, according to Cleon Rogers, the components of the parallels include the date, a geographical setting, and the mediator of the covenant.[23] More importantly than the content and structure of the treaties is that, according to Gane, the treaties highlight the relational dynamics of Scripture represented by the ancient Near Eastern rulers (suzerains), represented by Yahweh, and subordinates (vassals), represented by the Israelites, who pay tribute to the suzerains.[24] Although ancient Near Eastern vassals were required to pay tribute in a form of money, the Israelite vassals paid tribute to Yahweh as suzerain in the form of sacrificial offerings.[25]

Without question, the pinnacle of the book of Exodus is the mighty parting of water to free the Israelite slaves from the pursuit of the Egyptians. The Westcar Papyrus contains at least five tales from the Hyksos period from around 1630-1523 BC that tell stories set within the period of the Old Kingdom.[26] Currid suggests that the parting of the Sea of Reeds may have been inspired by an ancient Egyptian tale from the Westcar Papyrus.[27] The story is about a magician named Djadjaemankh who helps recover a turquoise pendant that had dropped into the water on a boat ride.[28] The magician says his magic words and then he “placed one side of the lake’s water upon the other, and he found the pendant” and brought it back to its owner before he said a few more magic words and “returned the water of the lake to their place.”[29] The popular parallel is Yahweh telling Moses to stretch out his staff over the sea to let the Israelites pass through the waters (Exod 14:15-16). The similarities between the two accounts include the involvement of a spiritual leader, the magician and Yahweh, and the supernatural division of a large body of water for the purpose of the salvation of something of value, a turquoise pendant and the Israelite people. Currid highlights the important distinction that the Egyptian account is meant to be read as fiction, and the biblical writers intended to record historical fact.[30]  

The final literary parallel arises from the Code of Hammurabi, which is a law code named after the King of the Babylonian Dynasty. The Hammurabi code from around 1700 BC predates the comparable Covenant Code recorded in Exodus 21-23. Joel Hamm, Bryan Babcock, and Justin Strong furnish three structural characteristics that highlight the similarities between the Covenant Code in Exodus and the legal code from ancient Mesopotamia: (1) third person writings, (2) casuistic laws, and (3) similar topics.[31] To be sure, Gane explains that other law codes also parallel the Covenant Code including the Ur-Nammu and Lipit-Ishtar written in Sumerian, the Laws of Eshnunna written in Akkadian, and the Hittite Laws.[32] All the law codes were used by kings to exhibit their judicial wisdom and substantiate their legitimacy. For example, in §206, the Hammurabi Code states, “If a seignior has struck another seignior in a brawl and has inflicted an injury…he shall also pay for the physician.”[33] Similarly, Exodus 21:18-19 states that when a man strikes another man “he shall pay for the loss of his time, and shall have him thoroughly healed.” The parallels between the Covenant Code and many of the ancient Near Eastern law codes are palpable and often nearly word-for-word.

Conclusion

An immersion into the cultural context of the ancient Near East is reminiscent of the masterpieces of Degas who applied impressionistic realism to the complex nature of the human psyche. Similarly, the ancient literature provides an impression of realism with texture, color, and structure that illuminates the historical reality of both the content and message of the Old Testament. From the story of baby Moses to the fearful, young runaway, and from the memorable parting of the sea to the stunning deliverance of the laws, the biblical accounts engage the cultural milieu while maintaining unprecedented veracity. Accordingly, the brief comparative literary analysis of the book of Exodus has revealed that many of the dominant stories and themes of the book are exquisitely reflected within the literary environment of the ancient Near East. Personally, the parallels continue to open new doors of possibility to understand Yahweh’s message to His people and simultaneously provide ample opportunity to integrate relevant content into both the study and teaching of Scripture.

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[1] James Bennett Pritchard, The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3rd ed. with Supplement. (Princeton: Princeton University, 1969).

[2] Brad C. Sparks, “Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus: Discussions of Exodus Parallels in the Egyptology Literature,” in Israel’s Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience, ed. Thomas E. Levy, Thomas Schneider, and William H. C. Propp (New York: Springer, 2015).

[3] Ibid., 259.

[4] John D. Currid, Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament (Wheaton: Crossway, 2013), 76.

[5] Pritchard, The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 119.

[6] Ibid.

[7] Donald B. Redford, “The Literary Motif of the Exposed Child,” Numen 14, no. 3 (1967): 225.

[8] Currid, Against the Gods, 80.

[9] Redford, “The Literary Motif of the Exposed Child,” 220.

[10] Victor H. Matthews and Don C. Benjamin, Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East (New York: Paulist Press, 2016), 141.

[11] Sparks, “Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus: Discussions of Exodus Parallels in the Egyptology Literature,” 266.

[12] Currid, Against the Gods, 93–94.

[13]  Currid, Against the Gods, 100.

[14] Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the English Standard Version (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008).

[15] Currid, Against the Gods, 100.

[16] Sparks, “Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus: Discussions of Exodus Parallels in the Egyptology Literature,” 267.

[17] Ibid.

[18] Mark S. Smith and Simon B. Parker, Ugaritic Narrative Poetry, vol. 9, Writings from the Ancient World (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), 156.

[19] Thomas B Dozeman, “Moses: Divine Servant and Israelite Hero,” Hebrew Annual Review 8 (1984): 57.

[20] Ibid.

[21] Roy E. Gane, Old Testament Law for Christians (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017), 45–46.

[22] William D Barrick, “The Mosaic Covenant,” The Master’s Seminary Journal 10, no. 2 (1999): 221.

[23] Cleon L Jr Rogers, “The Covenant with Moses and Its Historical Setting,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 14, no. 3 (1971): 147–148.

[24] Gane, Old Testament Law for Christians, 46.

[25] Ibid.

[26] Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms, vol. 1 (Berkeley: University of California, 1973), 215.

[27] Currid, Against the Gods, 125.

[28] Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms, 1:217.

[29] Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms, 1:217.

[30] Currid, Against the Gods, 126.

[31] Joel Hamme, Bryan C. Babcock, and Justin David Strong, “Code of Hammurabi,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, ed. John D. Barry (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016).

[32] Gane, Old Testament Law for Christians, 126.

[33] Pritchard, The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 175.

Bibliography

• Barrick, William D. “The Mosaic Covenant.” The Master’s Seminary Journal 10, no. 2 (1999): 213–232.
• Currid, John D. Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament. Wheaton: Crossway, 2013.
• Dozeman, Thomas B. “Moses: Divine Servant and Israelite Hero.” Hebrew Annual Review 8 (1984): 45–61.
• Gane, Roy E. Old Testament Law for Christians. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017.
• Hamme, Joel, Bryan C. Babcock, and Justin David Strong. “Code of Hammurabi.” In The Lexham Bible Dictionary, edited by John D. Barry. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016.
• Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Vol. 1. Berkeley: University of California, 1973.
• Matthews, Victor H., and Don C. Benjamin. Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East. New York: Paulist Press, 2016.
• Pritchard, James Bennett. The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 3rd ed. with Supplement. Princeton: Princeton University, 1969.
• Redford, Donald B. “The Literary Motif of the Exposed Child.” Numen 14, no. 3 (1967): 209–228.
• Rogers, Cleon L Jr. “The Covenant with Moses and Its Historical Setting.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 14, no. 3 (1971): 141–155.
• Smith, Mark S., and Simon B. Parker. Ugaritic Narrative Poetry. Vol. 9. Writings from the Ancient World. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997.
• Sparks, Brad C. “Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus: Discussions of Exodus Parallels in the Egyptology Literature.” In Israel’s Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience, edited by Thomas E. Levy, Thomas Schneider, and William H. C. Propp. New York: Springer, 2015.