The canonical importance of Exodus is evident in the entirety of Scripture, from Genesis through the New Testament. First, Exodus pulls together the covenant narrative of Genesis and moves it forward. The Israelites cry out to help from God due to their bondage and “God remembered His covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob” (Exod 2:23-24).^[1] In fact, Alec Motyer claims that the entire book of Exodus is covenant narrative.^[2] Second, Exodus is linked to the rest of the Pentateuch by the progressive journey to the Promised Land. Third, the Passover story in Exodus 12 reminds Israel of God’s redemptive activity that culminates in Christ (John 1:29-36). Fourth, Gregory Pereira points out that Exodus-remembrances occur throughout the Old Testament.^[3] More specifically, the historical books provide numerous references to the Exodus. For example, Samuel reminds the people of Israel of the exodus event when they cry out for a human king in 1 Samuel 10:17-19 (cf. Josh 2:10; Judg 11:15-22; 2 Kgs 17:26). The Psalmist reminds the Israelites of the Exodus stating, “He divided the sea and let them pass through it” (Ps 78:13). The prophets also include several allusions to the Exodus. For example, the prophet rhetorically asks in Isaiah 51:10, “Was it not You who dried up the sea?” (cf. Hos 13:4-6; Amos 2:10; Mic 6:4; Hab 3:8-10; Hag 2:4-7). Pereira also notes the canonical connections between Exodus and the book of Matthew by pointing out that Jesus, like Israel, experienced political persecution (Matt 2:13), safely came out of the water (Matt 3:16), and had His own wilderness experience (Matt 4:1).^[4] In sum, Jesus, God’s firstborn Son (Col 1:15, 18), redeems Israel, Yahweh’s firstborn son (Exod 4:22). Finally, it is difficult to ignore the canonical connection to the Pauline corpus especially in his letter to the Corinthians where Paul refers to Christ as the vehicle of redemption, the Passover lamb (1 Cor 5:7).

Several significant ancient Near Eastern background issues pertain to the book of Exodus. The story of the birth of Moses in Exodus 2:1-10 are reminiscent of the “Birth Story of Sargon I” and the “Myth of Horus.”^[5] In Exodus 3:1, Moses is identified as a shepherd, which aligns with the royal shepherd theme within the ancient Near East.^[6] In Exodus 3:13-14, Yahweh is referred to as “I am who I am.” Similarly, the ancient Egyptian text The Book of the Cow contains a chapter called “The Destruction of Mankind” where the sun-god Re declares that he is “I am that I am.”^[7]

The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament (IVP Bible Background Commentary Set)

The reference to God’s mighty hand and outstretched arm in Exodus 3:19-20 reflects attributes of ancient Near Eastern gods, specifically in the Egyptian royal hymns and the Armana letters.^[8] Furthermore, in Exodus 4:1-5, the staff likely symbolically alludes to an ancient Egyptian perspective of authority, and the serpent likely represents the Egyptian Pharaoh.^[9] The backdrop of the ten plagues in Exodus 7-12 is a conflict between Yahweh and the Egyptian gods.^[10] In general, the plagues attacked the Egyptian concept of Ma’at and the concept of universal order, and more specifically, the second plague attacked one of Egypt’s primary deities named Hekhet, who was depicted with a frog’s head.^[11]

The pinnacle of the book is chapter 14, the crossing of the sea, but the date and applicable Egyptian Pharaoh has been long debated. Two main approaches to the dating of the exodus exist: (1) the early date of approximately 1446 BC and (2) the late date of approximately 1265 BC, during the reign of Rameses the Great.^[12] The “Song of Moses” in Exodus 15 also provides an opportunity to engage ancient Near Eastern background information. Exodus 15:8 and 12 appear to engage ancient Egyptian cosmology of the subterranean, chaotic deep known as the netherworld.^[13] Furthermore verse 18 engages the king motif whereby Yahweh reigns over the god of the pantheon, which is potentially referred to in verse 11.^[14] In Exodus 19, the Israelites camped before Mount Sinai where Moses meets Yahweh. In ancient Near Eastern culture, it was not uncommon for gods to reside on a mountain.^[15] Several collections of legal codes predated the Decalogue in Exodus 20 in the ancient Near East including the famous Code of Hammurabi.^[16] Furthermore, the Covenant Code in Exodus 21-23 parallels the treaty form developed by the Hittites.^[17] Exodus 25-27 reflects the Temple motif where ancient Near Eastern gods would reveal the design of the temples to their worshippers just as Yahweh provides the design to Moses for the tabernacle.^[18] The apostasy of Israel documented in Exodus 32 parallels an ancient Near Eastern Canaanite context reflective of fertility, which is often emphasized in pagan festivals.^[19] Exodus 33 highlights the ancient Near Eastern motif of the possibility of temple abandonment, although, in this case, Moses does successfully negotiate Yahweh’s presence.^[20] Exodus 34 documents the ancient Near Eastern nations to be driven out by Yahweh, and Yahweh commands the Israelites to cut down the poles intended to honor the goddess Asherah, the divine consort of various Mesopotamian pantheons.^[21] Although additional ancient Near Eastern background exists in chapters 35-40, the content is somewhat repetitive.

Additional Thoughts

John,

Thank you for your feedback. You are correct. Tracing the route of the Exodus and exploring the location of Mount Sinai are good suggestions. I remember listening to a podcast a while back discussing the arguments regarding the location of the mountain. However, it slipped my mind until you mentioned it. Also, the instructions for the final paper state that we are to provide an “iconographic and cultural overview” of the chosen book of the Old Testament and then explain the comparative methodology. It seems like for the last couple of years I have been writing nothing but exegetical papers. Accordingly, I am trying to move my mind in a different direction thinking through how a cultural overview would be successfully developed. If you have a vision or thoughts on how you plan on approaching this idea, I am all ears.

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[1] Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the English Standard Version, (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008).

[2] J. A. Motyer, The Message of Exodus: The Days of Our Pilgrimage (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2005), 20.

[3] Gregory C Pereira, “The Need for a Canonical Reading of the Exodus Narratives in Finding Its Present-Day Theological Significance,” Verbum et Ecclesia 34, no. 1 (2013): 4–5.

[4] Ibid., 5.

[5] John D. Currid, Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament (Wheaton: Crossway, 2013), 76–83. See also Victor H. Matthews and Don C. Benjamin, Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East (New York: Paulist Press, 2016), 91–92.

[6] Jeffrey J. Niehaus, Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic & Professional, 2008), 34–55.

[7] Currid, Against the Gods, 100–101.

[8] John H. Walton, Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000), 200–201.

[9] Ibid., 80.

[10] Michael S. Heiser, The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2019), 150–152.

[11] John D. Currid, Ancient Egypt and the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Publishing Group, 1997), 110, 118–120.

[12] For an argument supporting the late date see James K Hoffmeier, “What Is the Biblical Date for the Exodus?: A Response to Bryant Wood,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 50, no. 2 (June 2007): 225–247. For an argument supporting the early date see Bryant G Wood, “The Biblical Date for the Exodus Is 1446 BC: A Response to James Hoffmeier,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 50, no. 2 (June 2007): 249–258.

[13] John I. Durham, Exodus, vol. 3, Word Biblical Commentary (Waco: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1987), 206–207.

[14] Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary, 91. See also Niehaus, Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology, 34–55.

[15] Currid, Against the Gods, 138–140.

[16] Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary, 94.

[17] Matthews and Benjamin, Old Testament Parallels, 93–94.

[18] Niehaus, Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology, 89–110.

[19] Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary, 115–116.

[20] Niehaus, Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology, 116–135.

[21] Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary, 117.

Bibliography

• Currid, John D. Against the Gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament. Wheaton: Crossway, 2013.
• ———. Ancient Egypt and the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Publishing Group, 1997.
• Durham, John I. Exodus. Vol. 3. Word Biblical Commentary. Waco: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1987.
• Heiser, Michael S. The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2019.
• Hoffmeier, James K. “What Is the Biblical Date for the Exodus?: A Response to Bryant Wood.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 50, no. 2 (June 2007): 225–247.
• Matthews, Victor H., and Don C. Benjamin. Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East. New York: Paulist Press, 2016.
• Motyer, J. A. The Message of Exodus: The Days of Our Pilgrimage. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2005.
• Niehaus, Jeffrey J. Ancient Near Eastern Themes in Biblical Theology. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic & Professional, 2008.
• Pereira, Gregory C. “The Need for a Canonical Reading of the Exodus Narratives in Finding Its Present-Day Theological Significance.” Verbum et Ecclesia 34, no. 1 (2013): 1–7.
• Walton, John H., Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas. The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2000.
• Wood, Bryant G. “The Biblical Date for the Exodus Is 1446 BC: A Response to James Hoffmeier.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 50, no. 2 (June 2007): 249–258.