Introduction

From the Antiochene and Alexandrian schools of biblical interpretation to the modern historical-critical and narrative hermeneutics, methodologies for biblical interpretation continue to evolve. Which hermeneutical method best illuminates the meaning of Scripture continues to confound interpreters. Unfortunately, if the methodology is deficient, then the interpretation will also lack integrity. Andreas Köstenberger and Richard Patterson’s hermeneutical triad provides an effective framework for biblical interpretation. This analysis examines the six interpretive and communicative competencies necessary to deploy Köstenberger and Patterson’s hermeneutical method. 

Historical-Cultural Awareness in Biblical Interpretation

The usefulness of historical and cultural awareness is that it provides the setting and background necessary for the proper interpretation of a passage. Richard Fuhr and Andreas Köstenberger assert that historical-cultural awareness entails three aspects: the geopolitical context, the cultural context, and the situational context. [1] The geopolitical context focuses on the historical, political, and geographical environments. [2] The parable of the Good Samaritan illustrates the importance of historical context. Samaria was the capital of Israel, which was conquered by Assyria in 722 BC. Foreigners mixed with the remaining population of Israelites and infiltrated the culture with their foreign gods. Accordingly, the post-exilic population of Samaritans were despised by Jews. Jesus’s message of grace becomes even more poignant considering the historical backdrop.

The geopolitical context also includes an awareness of the political environment. For instance, Jeremiah lived in a turbulent political atmosphere. Babylon and Egypt rose in power during the demise of the Assyrian Empire. Babylon then trounced Egypt at Carchemish, which led to the fall of Judah to Babylon. The political backdrop of Jeremiah provides the impetus for understanding his message of restoration. Geography is the final element of geopolitical context. Jeremiah prophecies that a voice from Mount Ephraim, a region just north of Jerusalem, warns Judah to repent from wickedness (Jer 4:15-16). John Walton explains that the prophet uses this geographical location “to demonstrate that the message of danger is traveling fast across the land.”

[3] Historical-cultural awareness also entails cultural context, which includes understanding the customs and mores of ancient societies. Luke 7:36-50 tells the story of a Pharisee named Simon inviting Jesus to dinner. Luke notes that Simon and Jesus were reclining, a custom suggesting the meal was a banquet in honor of Jesus. A sinful woman entered and wiped Jesus’ feet with her tears and hair. According to Clinton Arnold, unbinding a woman’s long hair in the cultural milieu of Jesus’s day was disgraceful, which enhances the story’s impact; the authentic love of a promiscuous sinner honors God more than the activities of the pious, religious elite. 

[4] The final aspect of historical-cultural awareness is situational context, the circumstances surrounding the events addressed by the author. Paul’s letter to the Galatians illustrates the necessity of situational awareness. Sometime after Paul and Barnabas left the province of Galatia, a group of Jewish Christians entered the area asserting that believers must adhere to the Torah. The Jewish agitators provide the situational backdrop to Paul’s letter. Understanding the Galatian situation facilitates proper interpretation.  

From the parable of the Good Samaritan to the Jewish agitators in Galatia, the significance of historical-cultural awareness is that it enhances the knowledge of the circumstances that shaped the lives of the ancient people. The impact of historical-cultural awareness is its ability to enhance the meaning of Scripture. Accordingly, biblical interpreters must firmly grasp the chronology of the historical events, the archaeology that reveals the customs of the ancient world, and the relevant primary and secondary sources that illuminate the culture of the Ancient Near East and the Second Temple period.

Canonical Consciousness in Biblical Interpretation

As a subset of literary context, canonical context acknowledges the unity of the Bible. Although each book of the Bible is a coherent unit, each book simultaneously lives in an interdependent relationship with the entire canon. The utility of canonical consciousness is that it expands the scope of literary context beyond the passage’s immediate surroundings and considers the passage based on its placement within the entire canon. Canonical consciousness acknowledges that the original authors understood they were writing within a broader context. Accordingly, canonical consciousness also entails recognizing the major themes that unify Scripture and locating the passage within its canonical context.

A powerful theme that spans the entire canon is God’s covenantal relationship with humanity. Accordingly, the interpreter must recognize the relationship of the passage under investigation to the applicable covenants. Abner Chou suggests that the Davidic covenant not only incorporates other covenants but also is incorporated into other Old Testament Scripture. [5] For example, regarding the Davidic covenant’s incorporation of other covenants, Genesis 12:2 states that God will make Abraham’s name great, and simultaneously, in 2 Samuel 7:9 God promises David that “I will make you a great name.” [6] Regarding the Davidic covenant’s incorporation into other Scripture, the book of Amos not only alludes to 2 Samuel with reference to the collapse of David’s dynasty, but also affirms God’s promises to David when stating, “I will raise up the booth of David that is fallen” (Amos 9:11). Without recognizing the canonical consciousness of the authors, the exegete risks misinterpreting the related covenantal passages. 

Another theme that encompasses the entire canon is the Exodus event. Whether interpreting the Old or New Testament, the redemptive nature of the Exodus event must remain within the purview of the interpreter. R. E. Nixon explains that the Exodus event informs the writing and theology of many of the later authors of Scripture. [7] Four examples illustrate the point. First, the Exodus event bridged the Abrahamic covenant with the reign of David through the formation of the nation of Israel. Second, Psalm 66 celebrates the deliverance of God’s people from Egypt within the Psalter. Third, Amos incorporates the Exodus event into his writings by reminding his readers of God’s deliverance from Egypt, while pleading with them to obey (Amos 2:10). Finally, Paul’s reference to Christ as the Passover lamb directly integrates the Exodus event into New Testament theology (1 Cor 5:17). In sum, Scripture must be interpreted in light of the overarching themes that underpin the entire canon. 

The significance of canonical consciousness is highlighted by the difficulty of an interpreter to exegete Scripture properly without placing the passage within the context of the whole canon. Recognizing the correlation between passages of Scripture within the placement of the canon enhances the interpreter’s understanding of the author’s original intent. The impact of canonical consciousness rests on the fact that unless the interpreter first properly understands the passage within its canonical context, the risk of misapplication into a contemporary context escalates.

Sensitivity to Genre in Biblical Interpretation

Another aspect of literary context is genre and subgenre. The usefulness of genre sensitivity is that it allows the interpreter to play the interpretive game by the correct rules. Two important guidelines must be followed when engaging in an analysis of genres and subgenres. First, the interpreter must correctly identify which genre is in play by understanding the characteristics of the different genres and realizing when shifts occur between genres within a literary unit. Second, Köstenberger and Patterson provide a plethora of interpretive rules that the interpreter must apply to the applicable genres and subgenres for proper interpretation.

 [8] One example of genre is Old Testament historical narrative. Historical narrative may include subgenres such as stories, accounts, and reports. Common characteristics of historical narrative that assist in identification include the presence of discourses, episodes, and scenes. A famous example of Old Testament historical narrative is the story of David and Goliath in 1 Samuel 17. The rules for proper interpretation require the interpreter to consider the external elements of the historical narrative, which include the author, whether real or implied; narrator, whether omniscient or integrated; and the reader. Furthermore, an analysis of the internal elements of the story, such as setting, plot, and characterization, also needs performed. General guidelines for interpretation include identifying the narrative type, the function and boundaries, the roles of the participants, the historical and theological context, and the universal principles that apply to a contemporary context. Importantly, the meaning of historical narrative is ultimately found in understanding the story as a whole by assimilating the constituent parts.

Another example of genre is Old Testament poetry. Certain books, such as the Psalter, are primarily poetic books, although poetry periodically occurs throughout the entire canon. Common characteristics of poetry, which assist in identifying the genre, include parallelism, terseness, concreteness, and imagery. The most well-known example of poetry in the Old Testament may be the book of Proverbs. The interpretive rules of poetry for a book such as Proverbs include an analysis of both structure and style. First, the interpreter needs to identify certain structural indicators such as stitching and chiasms, which use repetition to emphasize the author’s concerns. The interpreter should also identify the use of stylistic devices such as assonance, alliteration, and irregular word order that the authors often used to accentuate certain concepts. General guidelines for interpretation include building upon the structural and stylistic observations to identify a unifying theme for contemporary contextualization.

The significance of genre sensitivity is that the proper interpretation of Scripture requires an understanding of the rules to the game for interpreting various types of literature. The impact of genre sensitivity might include both negative and positive aspects. Negatively, misapplying the rules of figurative language to historical narrative could undermine the historicity and inerrancy of Scripture. Positively, understanding and appropriately applying the relevant rules to each specific genre and subgenre may open the interpreter to a deeper understanding of Scripture and God.

Literary and Linguistic Competence in Biblical Interpretation

Literary and linguistic competence is the final aspect of literary context. Köstenberger and Patterson expand upon three distinct categories: discourse context, word meanings, and figurative language. [9] Although grammar and syntax apply, the primary focus of discourse analysis is to focus interpretation of the entire literary unit. Furthermore, modern word studies emphasize a word’s semantic field and its context. Finally, the ability to identify and interpret figures of speech also fall under literary and linguistic competency. 

Regarding grammar and syntax, a well-known example pertains to the flexibility of the genitive case in Greek. Romans 3:22 states, “the righteousness of God through faith in Jesus Christ.” The phrase, Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, could be translated as an objective genitive, “faith in Christ,” or translated as a subjective genitive, “Christ’s faith.” No consensus exists.

Discourse analysis includes identifying literary boundaries, cohesion, sentence relations, prominence, and the setting of the passage. A brief example from the first two chapters of Philippians illustrates boundary features at the macro-level: introduction (1:1-11), Paul’s situation (1:12-26), the Philippian’s situation (1:27-2:18), and Paul’s future (2:19-30). Paul’s situation can then be delineated into Paul’s suffering (1:12-20) and selflessness (1:21-26). A final microstructure suggests that God uses suffering to advance the gospel (1:12-13), increase confidence (1:14), overcome opposition (1:15-17), and proclaim Christ (1:18-20). Also, examples of discourse features are recognizable in verse 12, “I want you to know (desire), brothers, that what has happened to me has really served (purpose) to advance the gospel (action).” 

Regarding semantics, Philippians 4:13 states, “πάντα ἰσχύω ἐν τῷ ἐνδυναμοῦντί με,” which woodenly translated states, “all I am able by the one who strengthens me.” The word ἰσχύω is often rendered “I can do,” which implies performance. A semantic field analysis using the Louw-Nida Lexicon suggests that ἰσχύω means the ability to “experience something.”  [10]  Furthermore, the context suggests that Paul is finding peace in the face of suffering. Thus, within context, a better translation is “I can experience (peace in) all things through the one who strengthens me.”

The ability to identify and interpret figures of speech is the final literary and linguistic competency. Examples abound. Proverbs 25:22 states, “For you will heap burning coals on his head.” Burning coals are, by metonymy, the things God intends for an enemy. Proverbs 16:27 provides an example of simile, “A worthless man plots evil, and his speech is like a scorching fire.” Scorching fire means cruel words. A final example is Genesis 42:38, “You would bring down my gray hairs.” You will bring down my gray hairs is a euphemism for you will kill me.

The significance of literary and linguistic competence is palpable. Discourse analysis prevents pulling sentences out of the broader literary context. Proper grammar and syntax decrease the risk of misinterpretation due to a lack of original language competence. Word studies that consider context and use semantic field analysis increase the possibility of attaching correct meaning to the text. A proper understanding of figures of speech decreases the risk of applying a literal meaning to figurative language. Without question, the impact of literary and linguistic competence on biblical interpretation is significant.

Grasp of Biblical Theology in Biblical Interpretation

Biblical theology is derived from Scripture inductively. The utility of biblical theology is that it encourages the interpreter to focus first on what the text meant to the original authors prior to synthesizing motifs into themes and then themes into theology. Biblical theology entails the use of a hermeneutical method. Köstenberger and Patterson contend that employing the hermeneutic triad, which balances the historical, literary, and theological context, provides the most effective method for performing biblical theology. [11] Biblical theology also entails the utilization of intertextuality to inform interpretation, which uses Scripture to interpret Scripture. 

Guidelines for doing biblical theology begin with identifying a theme and its relevant passages. Analyzing the passages by using the hermeneutical triad then commences, which illuminates the historical and literary context. The interpreter then determines the author’s intended meaning to the original audience. Next, the interpreter investigates the theme in light of the entire canon before making an application to a contemporary audience. Philippians 4:13 once again provides a brief example that highlights the distinctiveness of biblical theology. A deductive, topically oriented, approach risks using Philippians 4:13 to support a systematic theology of prosperity. I can do all things might be interpreted to mean that one can make a million dollars, buy a new house, or beat cancer. Alternatively, biblical theology’s use of the hermeneutical triad would reveal that the historical and literary context suggests that Paul is able to experience peace during difficult situations, not that Paul is guaranteed to eliminate difficult situations. Once interpreted correctly, the interpreter can identify the theme, experiencing joy during suffering, and expand it to other relevant passages to form a theological system based on biblical theology. 

The work of intertextuality also contributes to performing biblical theology. Intertextuality not only includes interpreting the New Testament in light of the Old Testament, but also the analysis of quotes, allusions, and echoes within the Testaments. For example, Philippians 1:19 states, “For I know that through your prayers and the help of the Spirit of Jesus Christ this will turn out for my deliverance.” Although Paul does not mention the connection, the final phrase, “this will turn out for my deliverance,” is in complete agreement with Job 13:16 in the LXX. Intertextuality encourages the interpreter to consider the implications of parallels between passages. For instance, comparing the way Paul and Job handled difficult situations may provide additional interpretive insight. 

The significance and impact of grasping biblical theology is fourfold. First, by inductively beginning with the text, the risk of imposing meaning onto the text is mitigated.  Second, by using an interpretive method based on the hermeneutical triad, the interpreter is forced to consider the context of the passage under consideration. Third, interpretive correlation allows the interpreter to integrate quotes, allusions, and echoes from other parts of Scripture into the interpretive analysis. Finally, identifying the thematic content that arises from the exercise of biblical theology allows the interpreter to inductively systematize the theology without resorting to deductive methodologies.

Application and Proclamation from Every Genre

The usefulness of properly proclaiming and applying Scripture rests on the fact that the Bible is God’s transformative, living Word, not just an informative communiqué. Unfortunately, the subjective nature of application creates a real risk for misapplication. To mitigate the risk, the application proclaimed must align with the meaning of the text in its original context. Köstenberger and Patterson provide two overarching initiatives to successfully proclaim and apply Scripture to a contemporary context: (1) carefully consider the impact of genre on the proclamation of the text and (2) carefully utilize the method of principlization to identify the universal principles that transcend cultural boundaries.

 [12] Once the interpreter completes the exegetical process, the message needs communicated, which requires an outline. The literary context, and more specifically, discourse analysis, provides the means for creating an outline from the text. However, since genre ultimately determines the literary structure of the passage, the genre type must also be considered when framing the message. For example, when outlining Old Testament narratives, the first step is to identify and interpret the scenes of the narrative, which often take the form of problem-resolution. Identifying the scenes assists in determining the scope and structure of the outline, and interpreting the scenes assists in recognizing the main idea. By contrast, poetic literature, such as the Psalter, requires classifying the Psalm, which aids in identify the main idea, and then creating the outline of the message based on the structure of the Psalm, which often revolves around a call, cause, and conclusion. Importantly, the structure of each distinct genre must be taken into consideration when structuring an outline for communication. 

A valid method for application is principlization, which also depends on genre. Principlization first assumes a correct interpretation of the text, and it then attempts to contemporize the meaning by identifying the concrete, universal principles. The principles provide the impetus for application. The principle should be text-based, timeless, not bound to a specific culture, consistent with the canon, and relevant to both the original and contemporary audience. Finally, principlization must consider the impact of genre. Some genres accommodate principlization more easily than others. For example, wisdom literature, such as Proverbs, often naturally fits into timeless principles. However, Old Testament historical narratives are often more difficult. For historical narratives, the identification of theological motifs that develop through history assist in identifying the timeless principles. Regardless, the interpreter must consider the implications of each genre when identifying universal principles for application. 

The significance and impact of application and proclamation is directly related to the glorification of God. When a believer obeys the Word of God, or more specifically, the correct interpretation of the Word of God, God is glorified. By employing the hermeneutical triad for interpretation, taking genre into consideration when outlining for proclamation, and using principlization to apply the text for transformation, the interpreter has the opportunity to join God in His revolutionary work of changing lives.

Conclusion

The six interpretive and communicative competencies, which include historical-cultural awareness, canonical consciousness, sensitivity to genre, literary and linguistic competence, a grasp of biblical theology, and application and proclamation from every genre, provide the building blocks of Köstenberger and Patterson’s hermeneutical method. Based on an examination of the six vital skills, the hermeneutical triad provides an effective framework for biblical interpretation. By utilizing a solid hermeneutical method, the interpreter significantly enhances his or her ability to correctly interpret the meaning of Scripture.

Bibliography

Arnold, Clinton E. Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: Matthew, Mark, Luke. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002.

Chou, Abner. The Hermeneutics of the Biblical Writers: Learning to Interpret Scripture from the Prophets and Apostles. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2018.

Fuhr, Richard Alan, Jr. and Andreas J. Köstenberger. Inductive Bible Study: Observation, Interpretation, and Application Through the Lenses of History, Literature, and Theology. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016.

Köstenberger, Andreas J., and Richard Patterson. Biblical Interpretation: Exploring the Hermeneutical Triad of History, Literature, and Theology. Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2011.

Louw, Johannes P., and Eugene Albert Nida. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Based on Semantic Domains. New York: United Bible Societies, 1996.

Nixon, Robin Ernest. The Exodus in the New Testament, 5–32. London: Tyndale, 1963.

Walton, John. Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary (Old Testament): Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel. Vol. 4. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.

References

[1] Richard Alan Fuhr, Jr. and Andreas J. Köstenberger, Inductive Bible Study: Observation, Interpretation, and Application Through the Lenses of History, Literature, and Theology (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016), 184–94.

[2] Ibid., 187.

[3] Walton, John, Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary (Old Testament): Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009), 4:247. 

[4] Clinton E. Arnold, Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: Matthew, Mark, Luke (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), 1:390. 

[5] Abner Chou, The Hermeneutics of the Biblical Writers: Learning to Interpret Scripture from the Prophets and Apostles (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2018), 73–80.

[6]  Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the English Standard Version (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008).

[7] Robin Ernest Nixon, The Exodus in the New Testament (London: Tyndale, 1963), 5–23.

[8] Andreas J. Köstenberger and Richard Patterson,  Literature, and Theology (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2011), 237–318. 

[9] Köstenberger and Patterson, Biblical Interpretation, 575–691. 

[10] Johannes P. Louw and Eugene Albert Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Based on Semantic Domains (New York: United Bible Societies, 1996), 675.

[11] Köstenberger and Patterson, Biblical Interpretation, 693–701. 

[12] Köstenberger and Patterson, Biblical Interpretation, 741–89. 

[13] Ernst Käsemann, Commentary on Romans, ed. and trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1980), 196.