Unreached People Group of Yemen

Introduction

The Bible testifies to the necessity of taking the message of the gospel to all the nations. Writing to the churches in Galatia, the Apostle Paul reminds his readers in Galatians 3:8 that “Scripture, foreseeing that God would justify the Gentiles by faith, preached the gospel beforehand to Abraham, saying, ‘In you shall all the nations be blessed.'”[1] Since the time of the Patriarchs, believers have been called to take the gospel to all nations. Unfortunately, thousands of people groups have yet to be reached with the gospel. An unreached people groups is defined as a cultural group that is less than 2 percent evangelical.

The following research addresses the people of Yemen, of an unreached people group. According to Jason Mandryk, the population of Yemen exceeds 24 million and consists of 99.92 percent Muslim, and only .08 percent Christian.[2] Accordingly, the following paper provides a plan to reach the people of Yemen for Christ to reach the people of Yemen. First, a brief background of the people of Yemen is provided, which includes their history, language, culture, economy, and religion. Next, a survey of missions’ work is provided, which summarizes the history of missions, status of the church, known believers, current challenges, and present mission strategies in Yemen. Finally, a strategy to reach the people Yemen completes the trilogy, and it includes both a proposed organizational structure and evangelization strategy. By exploring the background information, surveying the history of missions’ work, and proposing a valid mission strategy, this paper will show that it is possible to reach with the Gospel one of the most resistant people groups in one of the most dangerous places on earth – Yemen.

Background Information

History

The history of Yemen may be summarized in one word: conflict. The Library of Congress Federal Research Division provides a several insights into Yemen’s long and storied history. Prior to AD 630, the area known as modern-day Yemen, Arabia Felix, was ruled by various family dynasties.[3] During the seventh century, Yemen’s governor converted to Islam, which led to centuries of Arab caliphate rule followed by the rule of the Ottoman Empire in northern Yemen from the sixteenth century into the twentieth century.[4] In 1918, the Ottoman Empire relinquished control to the Zaydi dynasty leader, Imam Yahya, who was assassinated in 1948 and succeeded by his son until 1962, at which time Colonel Abdallah al Sallal took control of the north and founded the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR).[5] In southern Yemen, the British took power in 1839 and relinquished control in 1967, which culminated in the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY).[6] Conflict between the two parties led to continued unrest until Yemen’s reunification in 1990 into the Republic of Yemen, led by President Salih of the YAR.[7]

According to “The World Factbook,” a brief civil war broke out in 1994 followed by intermittent uprisings from 2004 through 2010.[8] President Salih’s popularity began to wane in 2011 due to disintegrating economic conditions and corruption, which led to the opposition calling for Salih’s resignation.[9] Salih eventually transferred power to Vice President Abd Rabuh Mansur Hadi in 2012, who took a number of democratic initiatives such as national elections.[10] However, the Huthis, a Muslim religious-political-armed movement that supported the ousted President Salih, overran the capital of Yemen in September of 2014 causing Hadi to flee to Saudi Arabia.[11] Hadi successfully convinced Saudi Arabia to launch airstrikes against the Huthis resulting in the Huthis announcing their own party as the legitimate power, the Supreme Political Council.[12] Finally, in an ironic twist, the Huthi forces murdered Salih in late 2017.[13] The centuries of unrest and conflict in Yemen appear to have no end in sight.

Language

According to Mandryk, the official language of Yemen is Arabic, but thirteen additional Semitic languages are spoken.[14] “Ethnologue” notes that standard Arabic is widespread in Yemen spoken by over 17 million people.[15] Other prevalent forms of Arabic include Gulf, Hadrami, Judeo-Yemeni, Sanaani, and Ta’izzi-Adeni.[16] More regional languages include Hobyót in the eastern corner of Yemen, Mehri in eastern Yemen, Rāziḥī in the northwest corner of Yemen, and Soqotri, which is primarily used on Socotra island southeast of Yemen.[17]

Culture

The following analysis of Yemen’s culture summarizes four topics: population, demographics, education, and health. First, “The World Factbook” asserts that the population of Yemen surpassed 28 million in 2017, which consisted predominantly of Arabians, and it had a strong population growth rate of 2.3 percent.[18] The urban population is approximately 36 percent of the population, with the majority residing in the Asir Mountains in western Yemen.[19] Second, Yemen has a young demographic. Mandryk states that 44 percent of the population is under fifteen-years-old with a life expectancy of approximately sixty-two years.[20] Third, the education system in Yemen is lacking. “The World Factbook” claims the literary rate is approximately 70 percent, but only 55 percent of the females were literate as of 2015.[21] Yemen has laws that require compulsory, free education through the age of fifteen, but the laws are not enforced; thus only 75 and 35 percent of children are enrolled in primary and secondary schools, respectively.[22] Finally, Yemen’s health system is significantly underdeveloped with only three doctors per 10,000 people.[23] Healthcare is particularly scarce in rural areas where only 25 percent of the people have access to healthcare.[24] Sadly, most childhood deaths are preventable with vaccinations, but are not available to much of the Yemeni population.[25]

Economy

Yemen’s economy can be summarized in one word: poor. In fact, Mandryk states that Yemen is the “poorest country in the Arab world.”[26] The turmoil, unrest, and wars have taken a significant toll on Yemen’s economy. The Library of Congress contends that the world community has provided financial support over the last number of decades, but water crisis, population growth, and the lack of economic expansion has kept more than 45 percent of the population in poverty.[27] More recently, “The World Factbook” claims that the continued conflict with the Huthi regime has damaged infrastructure, caused inflation, limited food supply, and created a significant humanitarian crisis, which included a large outbreak of cholera that left 80 percent of the population in need of assistance.[28] The Library of Congress points out that agriculture, forestry, and fishing remain the primary industries supporting Yemen’s economy.[29] The most prevalent agricultural crop is qat, which accounts for more than 6 percent of GDP.[30]  Qat is a controlled substance in most developed countries due the risk of psychological dependence, and Shelagh Weir notes that a significant portion of individual earnings often end up being used to purchase the drug.[31] Although Yemen borders Saudi Arabia, it is a small oil producer and not a member of OPEC, but oil still provides 75 percent of government’s revenue through production-sharing agreements.[32] Mandryk summarizes the most significant economic issues as “dwindling oil and water supplies…in a country with rapid population growth.”[33]

Religion

The third part of this paper explores Yemen’s religion in greater detail. Accordingly, this section provides only a very brief analysis. “The World Factbook” states that over 99 percent of Yemen is Muslim with 65 percent following the Sunni school and 35 percent following the Shia school of Islam.[34] The Library of Congress explains that Yemen’s constitution declares Islam as the state religion, thus it prohibits Muslim proselytization.[35] Accordingly, A. Scott Moreau, Gary Corwin, and Gary McGee note that religious persecution often exists within Islamic contexts.[36]

Family

Due to the strong Islamic presence in Yemen, the family reflects Sharia law, a legal system based on the Islamic faith. According to the World Culture Encyclopedia, many marriages have a family arrangement between the groom’s relatives and potential brides.[37] Under Sharia law, a man can consummate marriage with up to four brides as long as he keeps the relationships equitable, but even within the guidelines of the law, polygamy is not prevalent.[38]

About half of the population is married, and divorce is legal, but the divorce rate is at a stunningly low 1 percent.[39] The low divorce rate is likely due to the subordination of women, not a high moral regard for monogamous marriage. “The World Factbook” estimates the fertility rate in 2017 at 3.63 children per woman, and the contraceptive prevalence rate was 33.5 percent.[40] Vijayan Pillai and T. S. Sunil explain that fertility rates have fallen in other Arab country’s faster than Yemen.[41] The reason for the high fertility rate in such a poor country is due to religious values that dissuade contraception and a lack of economic opportunities for women.[42] Finally, it is difficult to ignore the impact of the unrest on the family. A New York Times article suggests the family carnage is due to the fighting between the Huthis and Yemen government that “has displaced a million people, destroyed cultural heritage sites, and terrorized the population.”[43]

Map

The map of Yemen places the country on the southern border of Saudi Arabia and the western border of Oman. To the east and south of Yemen, the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden separate the country from the African countries of Ethiopia and Somalia, respectively.[44]

A Survey of Mission Work

History of Missions

The history of missions in Yemen may have started shortly after the time of Christ. In the Apostle Paul’s letter to the Galatians he writes that God had called him to preach to the Gentiles, but instead of asking for advice from others or going to Jerusalem he “went away into Arabia, and returned again to Damascus” (Gal 1:17). Although the details of Paul’s trip to Arabia are uncertain, Samuel Zwemer suggests that the journey to Arabia may have been Yemen’s first Christian missionary effort.[45] During the third and fourth centuries, Christians settled in different parts of Arabia Felix, modern-day Yemen.[46] Andrea Sterk documents an unlikely missionary effort from a fifth century woman, Theognosta, who was taken captive from a convent and presented to the king of Yemen as a gift, and “through her agency” the king and the people became Christians.[47] During the sixth century, Arab caravans entered Arabia Felix, and soon thereafter “the last sparks of Christianity were extinguished.”[48] David Grafton has identified three important missionaries to the Muslim world from the thirteenth to the early nineteenth century: Raymund Lull, Henry Martyn, and Karl Pfander. [49] These men were precursors to the modern missionary work in Yemen by Ion Keith-Falconer (1856-87) and Samuel Zwemer (1867-1952).[50] The impact of Keith-Falconer’s short but powerful missionary effort in Yemen is a story of courage. After studying at Cambridge, Keith-Falconer’s passion for missions led him to start the Aden Mission in southwest Yemen, which quickly moved inland to Sheikh Othman to minister to the indigenous Arab population.[51] Keith-Falconer’s efforts focused on medicine and education, and was considered the “first Protestant missionary to intentionally focus upon Arabian Muslims.”[52] The missionary’s legacy continues as positive model for the necessity of indigenous Arab churches.[53] Although Keith-Falconer succumbed to sickness within a year after founding the mission, the Aden Mission lasted from 1886-1963.[54]

Under the influence of Keith-Falconer, Samuel Zwemer, often called the “Apostle to Islam,” left America for Arabia in 1890.[55] After a brief visit to Cairo, Zwemer landed in Aden, Yemen, where he fought off malaria while moving through various parts of the country.[56] In 1891, Zwemer traveled to Sanaa, Yemen, which had been closed to foreigners, but surprisingly, officials allowed him to witness to the Arabian people.[57] During 1894, Zwemer returned to Sanaa in an effort to distribute New Testament Bibles translated into Hebrew.[58] Although Yemen’s missionary history is limited due to religious freedom restrictions, the courage of the missionaries God has called to Yemen is an inspiration to all who have followed in their footsteps.

Status of Church

Since Islam is the state religion and enforces Sharia law, non-Muslim institutional churches are a practical impossibility. The United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor explains that Yemen’s constitution provides for “freedom of thought and expression ‘within the limits of the law,’ but omits mention of freedom of religion,” and the “criminal code states ‘deliberate’ and ‘insistent’ denunciation of Islam or conversion from Islam to another religion is apostasy, which is a capital offense.”[59] Accordingly, Raymond Ibrahim explains that under Sharia law the Yemen government does not allow the building of private churches or the open gathering of local Christians.[60] One study identified five churches in Aden, Yemen, but three were dilapidated, one was owned by the government, and the remaining church was converted into a health facility.[61] Accordingly, sources explain that the only churches that exist are underground where Christians pray “in the members’ houses on a rotational basis – not unlike the days of Roman persecution of Christians, when the latter worshipped in underground catacombs.”[62] Unfortunately, the recent outbreak of violence by the Huthi rebels has only served to increase the persecution of non-Muslim religions.[63]

Known Believers

Considering the significant risk of persecution, it is not surprising that the number of known believers is negligible. Recent estimates suggest that approximately 2,500 indigenous Christians live in a clandestine culture in Yemen.[64] In addition to the indigenous Christians, an estimated 15,000 to 25,000 refugees from countries such as Somalia, Eritrea, and Ethiopia currently live in Yemen because the persecution in those countries is even worse.[65] However, these estimates are quite speculative as no official statistics regarding non-Muslim people currently exist.[66]

Challenges

The challenges of mission work in Yemen are vast, and many have been alluded to previously. Economically, two of the most profound challenges are the lack of clean water and the extreme poverty. Culturally, continued strong population growth, alongside a society that devalues education and women’s rights, pose additional challenges to mission work. Third, the Arabic language barrier is an additional challenge to the training of missionaries. Fourth, the continued civil unrest between the Huthi forces and the Yemen government create an unstable and dangerous society for missionary work, even if Islamic law was not a constitutional mandate. Finally, and likely most challenging, the government denies freedom of religion and prohibits Muslim proselytization, which leads to persecution from both civil authorities and the public at large. For example, in 2002 three United States medical missionaries were gunned down by a man named Abed Abdel Razzak Kamel, who was a member of a Yemeni Islamic group.[67] The assassin claimed that he shot the missionaries because “they were preaching Christianity.”[68] The murdered individuals were missionaries working at an American Baptist hospital that provides free medicine for tens of thousands of patients per year.[69] Unfortunately, civil authorities also persecute Christians in Yemen. In 2008, Yemeni police arrested a “missionary cell” consisting of seven individuals who were charged with “promoting Christianity and distributing the Bible.”[70] The arrests could lead to torture and capital punishment.[71]

Present Strategies

Due to the significant religious persecution in the Islamic state of Yemen, most missionary work has taken the form of humanitarian relief efforts. One prominent example is the work of Scottish medical missionaries. According to J. H. Proctor, Keith-Falconer believed an effective method of opening the Yemen people to the message of the Gospel would be to supply medical services. [72] Accordingly, Keith-Falconer recruited a doctor named Stewart Cowen, who was followed by 24 physicians over 92 years of medical mission service in Yemen.[73] Unfortunately, the mission efforts were terminated in 1979 by local authorities, and beyond a few converts, the only real evidence of success was a decrease in the negative perceptions of Christians.[74] Similarly, since the late 1960s, Southern Baptists have administered a small 45-bed hospital in Jibla, Yemen located just south of Yemen’s capital, which provided medical missionary initiatives.[75] In 2002, after the murdered missionary event at the hospital, the Yemeni government increased cooperation with the Southern Baptists to serve the Yemeni people by agreeing to work more closely together if the term Baptist was removed from the name of the hospital.[76] The Scottish medical mission and efforts of Southern Baptists are indicative of present missionary strategies deployed by other Christian organizations as well. To this point, very little evangelistic success has occurred from any form of Christian missionary effort. Furthermore, the recent political unrest in Yemen has strained even the small amount of government cooperation with humanitarian mission efforts.

Proposed Strategy

The following proposed mission strategy is from the perspective of a missionary going to the people of Yemen. The background information provided above suggests that the strategy must be sustainable in a country where Sharia law is enforced under the Islamic state religion. Furthermore, the strategy must take into consideration that non-Muslim institutional churches are a practical impossibility. Finally, it is necessary to recognize that the brief survey of past and present missions’ work, which has centered around humanitarian efforts to build trust, has had limited success regarding evangelization. The following analysis proposes a strategy that considers the state religion and the limited evangelistic success by applying a C5 organizational structure found in the book, Perspectives, with a personal evangelization strategy of reinterpretation found in Fouad Elias Accad’s book, Building Bridges.

Organizational Structure

Before providing the details of an organizational structure to support a missionary in Yemen, it is acknowledged that certain inherent risks of syncretism exist with any contextualization initiative. Accordingly, the following structure is not without potential controversy. However, one must also consider the possibility that the risk associated with an un-evangelized Yemen may outweigh the risk associated with a controversial strategy that increases the risk of syncretism. It is within this framework of risk, that the following analysis is presented.

Contextualization is the process of adapting the message of the gospel to the culture of the recipients. John Travis offers six types of “Christ-Centered Communities” within a Muslim context by using the nomenclature C1 through C6, which identify categories of contextualization.[77] The C1 and C2 communities are visible forms of the traditional church, C3 communities are more culturally sensitive, but still considered Christian, all of which would be practical impossibilities in the legal environment of Yemen.[78] At the opposite extreme are C6 communities where believers live in secret with no visible form of evangelization or community.[79] C4 communities maintain many Islamic practices, do not meet in church buildings, and are viewed as a “kind of Christian.”[80] C4 communities are a viable option for missionaries in Yemen, but the risk of real or perceived violations of the law not only make C4 communities too dangerous, but also put potential Muslim believers at risk unnecessarily. Alternatively, C5 communities consist of believers that “remain legally and socially within the community of Islam.”[81]

Certain risks are associated with C5 communities. Phil Parshall asserts that C5 communities risk being labeled as both “unethical and sub-Christian.”[82] First, C5 communities may be considered unethical because they convey they are Muslims when, in fact, they are something other than Muslim. Second, C5 communities may be considered sub-Christian because, if they align solely with traditional Muslim beliefs, then they cannot quite be considered Christian. However, Travis asserts that the biggest challenge for Muslims believing in Christ is not theology, but their “cultural and religious identity,” since leaving their religious identity means disassociation with friends, family, and community, while, simultaneously, risking their lives.[83] Accordingly, a possible solution is to encourage Muslims to maintain their cultural and religious identity, while aligning their beliefs with the Bible through a proper reinterpretation of the Qur’an.[84]

Building Bridges: Christianity and Islam

Evangelization Strategy

The key to a missionary successfully deploying an evangelization strategy within a C5 community context is a proper reinterpretation and application of the Qur’an. Fouad Elias Accad provides an approach to personal evangelism to Muslims that consists of first consciously building trust through a lifestyle that gains respect, then properly understanding Muhammad and the Qur’an, followed by explaining the relationship between the Bible and the Qur’an as well as shrewdly sharing seven Muslim-Christian principles of reinterpretation.[85]

Building trust with individuals is not a new concept to missiology, and the importance of trust certainly applies to mission efforts with the Muslim community. The recent history of mission work, which focused on humanitarian efforts, began paving the way for trust building. Certainly, service is one way to build trust. However, Muslims are skeptical of the motives of even humanitarian efforts, thus another important aspect of trust building is time. Accad explains that any potential conversation regarding faith will fall on deaf ears “if the Muslim has not had time to develop a respect for that Christian friend.”[86]

Part of building trust and respect is not violating the individual’s high regard for Islam; thus a proper view of Muhammad and the Qur’an is critically important for evangelistic efforts with Muslims. Accad explains that many Christians believe the myth that Muhammad and the Qur’an are anti-Christian.[87] The Bible had not been translated into Arabic at the time of Muhammad, so much of his knowledge about the Scriptures was taught to him orally by Jews, thus the Qur’an’s early chapters are often positive with regard to both Jews and Christians.[88]  For example, the Qur’an states, “The believers, as well as the Jews, the Sabeans and the Christians: all who believe in God and the Last Day and do righteous deeds, will have nothing to fear and they will not grieve” (The Feast 5:69).[89] Furthermore, Accad explains that Muslims are strict monotheists, who first used the term Allah, meaning “The God,” during the sixth and seventh centuries. [90] Thus, as an Abrahamic religion, it is not unreasonable to assert that Allah and Yahweh are referring to the same one and only God, the God of Abraham, even if Islam’s understanding of the attributes of God differ from Christians.[91] Finally, a correct understanding of Muhammad is also critical. If the term “prophet” is defined as the final messenger from God, Christians do not believe the tradition that Muhammad was a prophet. However, Accad suggests that Christians can believe that Muhammad was a prophet based on the definition provided by the Qur’an, which explains that Muhammad “was a warner in a clear Arabic tongue (see Poets 26:194-195).”[92] In sum, missionaries can begin finding common ground with Muslims by recognizing that Muhammad was not anti-Christian, the Qur’an often speaks positively of the Bible, Muslims are monotheists who believe in the God of Abraham, and that Muhammad was a type of prophet who warned people about God in Arabic during a time when no Bible existed.

Once respect and common ground is garnered, the missionary can next explain the relationship between the Qur’an and the Bible, and then he or she can move toward sharing the seven Muslim-Christian principles of reinterpretation. The Qur’an actually teaches Muslims to use the Bible, as exemplified in the following verse: “People of the Book [the Qur’an], you have no valid ground for your beliefs, unless you (truly) observe the Torah and the Gospel, and all that has been sent down to you from your Lord” (The Feast 5:68). With the Bible’s relationship to the Qur’an established, each of the principles shared by the missionary can use both the Bible and the Qur’an as supporting evidence for the principles of reinterpretation.

Accad’s first principle states, “God has a wonderful purpose for our lives.”[93] Sharing the following verses supports principle one: Deuteronomy 7:9; Luke 1:50; and the verse from the Qur’an, which states, “If the people of those communities had believed and been mindful of Us, We [God] would have showered them with grace out of heaven and earth” (The Heights 7:96). The Qur’an shows that God wants to further the purposes of the believer. Accad’s second principle states, “Sin separates us from the pleasure of God’s company and all the resulting benefits.”[94] Sharing the following verse in the Qur’an supports principle two, which states, “Truly, those who do evil and are caught in their sins will be in Hell eternally” (The Cow 2:81). Clearly, the Qur’an shows that sin separates people from God. Accad’s third principle states, “We are helpless to save ourselves.”[95] Sharing Psalms 125:5 and Titus 3:4-5 supports principle three, along with a verse in the Qur’an, which states, “Lest a soul be damned for what it has earned. It will have no one to protect it from God, and no one to intercede besides Him” (Livestock 6:70). In this verse, the Qur’an admits that it is God who intercedes, not something “earned.” Accad’s fourth principle states, “God has provided a solution to our dilemma.”[96] Sharing Isaiah 19:20 and Psalms 49:7-8 supports the fourth principle and so does a verse in the Qur’an, which states, “We [God] ransomed him [Abraham’s son] with a great sacrifice” (The Ranks 37:107). This verse in the Qur’an makes the cross more logical to a Muslim. Accad’s fifth principle states, “The solution is not just the Cross but a divine Person, Jesus Christ.”[97] Sharing Isaiah 61:1 and John 1:1-14 supports principle five along with the verse in the Qur’an, which states, “The angels said, ‘God gives you good news of a world from Him, whose name will be the Messiah, Jesus (Esa) son of Mary, He will be highly distinguished in this world and the Hereafter, and brought near to God'” (The Family of Imran 3:45). Accad’s sixth principle states, “We must invite Christ, our substitute, to live in our hearts and be the master of our lives.”[98] Sharing Isaiah 61:1 and John 1:1-14 support principle six along with the verse in the Qur’an, which states, “God said, ‘Jesus, I will cause you to die and raise you up to me…and I will exalt your followers over those who deny you until the Resurrection Day'” (The Family of Imran 3:55). This verse in the Qur’an opens the story of Christ’s death and resurrection to the Muslim. Accad’s seventh principle states, “When we accept Christ, we receive forgiveness for our sins.”[99] Sharing Ezekiel 36:26-27 and John 1:12-13 supports principle seven along with the verse in the Qur’an, which states, “God, the Almighty, the All-Knowing. Forgiver of sin, Acceptor of repentance, Severe in punishment and Infinite in favor” (The Forgiver 40:2-3). These seven principles provide the potential for a missionary to share the gospel with a Muslim through a proper reinterpretation of the Qur’an.

Conclusion

Although Scripture is unequivocal in its directive to share the gospel with all nations, it is hard to imagine a more difficult people group to reach than the people of Yemen. The history of unrest, Arabic language, low literacy rate, poverty-stricken economy, Sharia law, Islamic state religion, and suppression of women’s rights all contribute to significant challenges associated with any form of Christian missionary work in Yemen. Furthermore, courageous efforts have been made by individuals such as Ion Keith-Falconer and Samuel Zwemer, and significant humanitarian support have been provided by organizations such as the Scottish Medical Missionaries and the Southern Baptists. However, in the face of severe persecution, these efforts have resulted in little evangelistic success. Accordingly, the number of Christians are exceedingly low and the number of Christian churches is practically non-existent. However, by using local cultural forms and a biblically acceptable reinterpretation of the Qur’an, it is possible to remain within a Muslim community as a believer in Christ through the organizational structure of a C5 community. Furthermore, by consciously building trust through a lifestyle that gains respect, properly understands Muhammad and the Qur’an, and explains the relationship between the Bible and the Qur’an followed by shrewdly sharing the seven Muslim-Christian principles of reinterpretation, a missionary has the potential of evangelizing Muslims in Yemen. Accordingly, by considering the background, survey of missions’ work, and proposed strategy for missions, this paper has shown that it is possible to reach one of the most resistant people groups in one of the most dangerous places on earth.

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[1] Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the English Standard Version (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008).

[2] Jason Mandryk, Operation World: The Definitive Prayer Guide to Every Nation, 7th ed. (Downers Grove: IVP Books, 2010), 889.

[3] Library of Congress – Federal Research Division, “Country Profile: Yemen,” (August 2008): 1, accessed May 25, 2018, http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Yemen-new.pdf.

[4] Ibid., 1-2.

[5] Ibid., 2.

[6] Ibid.

[7] Ibid.

[8] “The World Factbook,” Central Intelligence Agency, accessed May 20, 2018, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ym.html.

[9] “The World Factbook.”

[10] Ibid.

[11] Ibid.

[12] Ibid.

[13] Ibid.

[14] Mandryk, Operation World, 889.

[15] Ethnologue: Languages of the World, accessed May 21, 2018, https://www.ethnologue.com/country/YE /languages. Also see language map at https://www.ethnologue.com/map/YE.

[16] Ibid.

[17] Ibid.

[18] “The World Factbook.”

[19] Ibid.

[20] Mandryk, Operation World, 889.

[21] “The World Factbook.”

[22] Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Yemen,” 7.

[23] Ibid., 10.

[24] “The World Factbook.”

[25] Ibid.

[26] Mandryk, Operation World, 889.

[27] Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Yemen,” 8.

[28] “The World Factbook.”

[29] Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Yemen,” 10.

[30] Ibid.

[31] Shelagh Weir, “Economic Aspects of the Qat Industry in North-West Yemen,” in Economy, Society, & Culture in Contemporary Yemen, ed. B. R. Pridham (London: Croom Helm, 1985), 64.

[32] Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Yemen,” 10-11.

[33] Mandryk, Operation World, 889.

[34] “The World Factbook.”

[35] Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Yemen,” 6.

[36] A. Scott Moreau, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee, Introducing World Missions: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Survey, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015), 292.

[37] World Culture Encyclopedia, s.v. “Yemen,” accessed May 24, 2018, http://www.everyculture.com/ To-Z/Yemen.html.

[38] Ibid.

[39] World Culture Encyclopedia, s.v. “Yemen.”

[40] “The World Factbook.”

[41] Vijayan K. Pillai and T. S. Sunil, “Toward Smaller Family Size in Yemen,” Asian Population Studies 2, no. 3 (November 2006): 257.

[42] Ibid., 267.

[43] Hanna Ingber, “The Many Miseries of Yemeni Families,” New York Times, June 24, 2015, accessed May 24, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/25/world/middleeast/yemen-families-humanitarian-crisis.html.

[44] Yemen (map), accessed May 20, 2018, http://www.businessinsider.com/these-maps-show-where-yemens-conflict-could-be-heading-2015-3. Google Maps.

[45] Samuel M. Zwemer, Arabia: The Cradle of Islam, 2nd ed. (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1900), 300–1.

[46] Ibid., 307.

[47] Andrea Sterk, “Representing Mission from Below: Historians as Interpreters and Agents of Christianization,” Church History 79, no. 2 (June 2010): 297–98.

[48] Zwemer, Arabia: The Cradle, 313.

[49] David D. Grafton, “The Legacy of Ion Keith-Falconer,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 31, no. 3 (July 2007): 148.

[50] Ibid.

[51] Grafton, “The Legacy,” 148.

[52] Ibid., 150–51.

[53] Ibid., 152.

[54] Ibid., 148–50.

[55] Christy J. Wilson Jr., “The Legacy of Samuel M. Zwemer,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 10, no. 3 (July 1986): 117–18.

[56] Ibid., 118.

[57] Ibid.

[58] Zwemer, Arabia: The Cradle, 363.

[59] Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, “Yemen 2015 International Religious Freedom Report,” U. S. Department of State: 1, accessed May 26, 2018, http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/ 256509.pdf.

[60] Raymond Ibrahim, “Yemen’s Forgotten Christians,” Gatestone Institute International Policy Council, January 29, 2013, accessed May 26, 2018, http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/3563/yemen-christians.

[61] Ibid.

[62] Ibid.

[63] Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, “Yemen 2015,” 4.

[64] “The Christians of Yemen: A Minority Pray Invisibly,” Egyptian Today, January 6, 2013, accessed May 26, 2018, http://www.linga.org/international-news/NDY2NA.

[65] Ibid.

[66] Ibid.

[67] Mark Husband, “Three US Missionaries Killed in Yemen,” FT.com, December 30, 2002, accessed May 26, 2018, http://ezproxy.liberty.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/docview/228676568?accountid=12085.

[68] David N. Dixon, “Aid Workers or Evangelists, Charity, or Conspiracy: Framing of Missionary Activity as a Function of International Political Alliances,” Journal of Media and Religion 4, no. 1 (2005): 18.

[69] Alan Philps, “Missionaries Vow to Stay in Yemen after Killings,” The Telegraph, December 31, 2002, accessed May 26, 2018, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/yemen/1417549/Missionaries-vow-to-stay-in-Yemen-after-killings.html.

[70] “Yemen: Christians Arrested for Missionary Work and Apostasy,” EA Foundation, accessed May 26, 2018, http://www.ea.org.au/ea-family/Religious-Liberty/YEMEN–CHRISTIANS-ARRESTED-FOR-MISSIONARY-WORK-AND-APOSTASY.

[71] Ibid.

[72]J. H. Proctor, “Scottish Medical Missionaries in South Arabia, 1886-1979,” Middle Eastern Studies 42, no. 1 (January 2006): 103.

[73] Proctor, “Scottish Medical Missionaries,” 103.

[74] Ibid.

[75] George Whitten, “Yemeni Gets Death Sentence for Killing U.S. Missionaries,” Worthy News, May 12, 2002, accessed May 26, 2018, https://www.worthynews.com/572-yemeni-gets-death-sentence-for-killing-u-s-missionaries.

[76] Ibid.

[77] John J. Travis, “The C-Spectrum: A Practical Tool for Defining Six Types of ‘Christ-Centered Communities’ Found in Muslim Contexts,” in Perspectives on the World Christian Movement, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 4th ed. (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 664.

[78] Ibid.

[79] Travis, “The C-Spectrum,” 664.

[80] Ibid., 664–65.

[81] Ibid., 665.

[82] Phil Parshall, “Going Too Far?,” in Perspectives on the World Christian Movement, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 4th ed. (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 666.

[83] John J. Travis, “Must All Muslims Leave ‘Islam’ to Follow Jesus?,” in Perspectives on the World Christian Movement, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 4th ed. (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 672.

[84] Ibid., 670–71.

[85] Fouad Elias Accad, Building Bridges: Christianity and Islam (Colorado Springs: NavPress, 1997), 30–77.

[86] Ibid., 31.

[87] Ibid., 39.

[88] Accad, Building Bridges, 40.

[89] Unless otherwise noted, all Qur’an passages referenced are in The Qur’an with References to the Bible: A Contemporary Understanding (Fairfax, VA: Bridges of Reconciliation, 2016). Brackets are explanatory.

[90] Accad, Building Bridges, 40.

[91] Ibid.

[92] Ibid., 39, 40.

[93] Accad, Building Bridges, 77.

[94] Ibid., 83.

[95] Ibid., 91.

[96] Accad, Building Bridges, 97.

[97] Ibid., 110.

[98] Ibid., 124.

[99] Ibid., 130.

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